Editing User:Raven/ignore me (section)

== Characteristics ==

=== Description ===

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Cattle are large [[artiodactyl]]s, [[mammal]]s with [[cloven hooves]], meaning that they walk on two toes, the third and fourth digits. Like all bovid species, they can have horns, which are unbranched and are not shed annually.<ref>{{cite web |title=Antelopes, Gazelles, Cattle, Goats, Sheep, and Relatives: Introduction |url=http://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/i10713.pdf |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |access-date=26 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117012951/http://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/i10713.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2024 |pages=1–23 |url-status=live}}</ref> Coloration varies with breed; common colors are black, white, and red/brown, and some breeds are spotted or have mixed colors.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rolf |first1=Megan |title=Color Patterns in Crossbred Beef Cattle |url=https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/color-patterns-in-crossbred-beef-cattle.html |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma]] Extension |access-date=26 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204134435/https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/color-patterns-in-crossbred-beef-cattle.html |archive-date=4 December 2023 |page=AFS-3173 |date=February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Bulls are larger than cows of the same breed by up to a few hundred kilograms. British Hereford cows, for example, weigh {{cvt|600|-|800|kg}}, while the bulls weigh {{cvt|1000|-|1200|kg}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cattlenetwork.net/breeds/hereford.htm |title=Hereford cattle weight |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150124050154/http://www.cattlenetwork.net/breeds/hereford.htm |archive-date=24 January 2015}}</ref> Before 1790, beef cattle averaged only {{convert|350|lb|order=flip|abbr=on}} net. Thereafter, weights climbed steadily.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gallman |first1=Robert E. |last2=Wallis |first2=John Joseph |title=American Economic Growth and Standards of Living before the Civil War |year=2007 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-1-2812-2349-4 |page=248}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://beefmagazine.com/genetics/0201-increased-beef-cows |title=Cattle increasing in size |last=McMurry |first=Bryan |access-date=5 May 2015 |website=Beef Magazine |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503101557/http://beefmagazine.com/genetics/0201-increased-beef-cows |archive-date=3 May 2015 |date=February 1, 2009}}</ref><!--<ref>{{cite book |last=Mathews |first=Kenneth H. |title=U.S. Beef Industry: Cattle Cycles, Price Spreads, and Packer concentration |year=1999 |publisher=[[US Department of Agriculture]] |page=6}}</ref>-->
Cattle breeds vary widely in size; the tallest and heaviest is the [[Chianina]], where a mature bull may be up to {{cvt|1.8|m}} at the shoulder, and may reach {{cvt|1280|kg}} in weight.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chianina |url=https://www.thecattlesite.com/breeds/beef/44/chianina |website=The Cattle Site |access-date=26 March 2024 |date=29 September 2022}}</ref>
The natural life of domestic cattle is some 25–30 years. Beef cattle go to slaughter at around 18 months, and dairy cows at about five years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cattle factsheet |url=https://education.rspca.org.uk/documents/1494931/0/FS+Cattle+Factsheet.pdf/7e17fe59-ca4d-fbec-ef60-fd1f2a9eff3f?t=1555165974046 |publisher=[[RSPCA]] |access-date=13 February 2024}}</ref>

=== Digestive system ===

{{Further|Digestive system of ruminants}}
[[File:Kibegwa 2023 rumen microbiome.png|thumb|Bacteria dominate the rumen microbiome; composition can change substantially with diet.<ref name="Kibegwa2023"/>]]

Cattle are [[ruminant]]s, meaning their [[Gastrointestinal tract|digestive system]] is highly specialized for processing plant material such as [[grass]] rich in [[cellulose]], a tough carbohydrate polymer which many animals cannot digest. They do this in symbiosis with micro-organisms – [[bacteria]], [[Fungus|fungi]], and [[protozoa]] – that possess [[cellulase]]s, [[enzyme]]s that split cellulose into its constituent [[sugar]]s. Among the many bacteria that contribute are ''[[Fibrobacter succinogenes]]'', ''[[Ruminococcus|Ruminococcus flavefaciens]]'', and ''Ruminococcus albus''. Cellulolytic fungi include several species of ''[[Neocallimastix]]'', while the protozoa include the [[ciliate]]s ''Eudiplodinium maggie'' and ''Ostracodinium album''.<ref name="Hua Hendriks Xiong Pellikaan 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Hua |first1=Dengke |last2=Hendriks |first2=Wouter H. |last3=Xiong |first3=Benhai |last4=Pellikaan |first4=Wilbert F. |title=Starch and Cellulose Degradation in the Rumen and Applications of Metagenomics on Ruminal Microorganisms |journal=[[Animals (journal)|Animals]] |volume=12 |issue=21 |date=3 November 2022 |pmid=36359144 |pmc=9653558 |doi=10.3390/ani12213020 |doi-access=free |page=3020}}</ref> If the animal's feed changes over time, the composition of this [[microbiome]] changes in response.<ref name="Kibegwa2023"/>

Cattle have one large [[stomach]] with four compartments; the [[rumen]], [[Reticulum (anatomy)|reticulum]], [[omasum]], and [[abomasum]]. The rumen is the largest compartment and it harbours the most important parts of the microbiome.<ref name="Kibegwa2023">{{cite journal |last1=Kibegwa |first1=Felix M. |last2=Bett |first2=Rawlynce C. |last3=Gachuiri |first3=Charles K. |last4=Machuka |first4=Eunice |last5=Stomeo |first5=Francesca |last6=Mujibi |first6=Fidalis D. |date=13 January 2023 |title=Diversity and functional analysis of rumen and fecal microbial communities associated with dietary changes in crossbreed dairy cattle |journal=[[PLOS One|PLOS ONE]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=e0274371 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0274371 |doi-access=free |pmid=36638091 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1874371K |pmc=9838872}}</ref> The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known as the "honeycomb". The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The abomasum has a similar function to the human stomach.<ref name="Orr 2023">{{cite web |last1=Orr |first1=Adam I. |title=How Cows Eat Grass: Exploring Cow Digestion |url=https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/how-cows-eat-grass |publisher=[[Food and Drug Administration]] |access-date=13 February 2024 |date=28 June 2023}}{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

Cattle [[regurgitation (digestion)|regurgitate]] and re-chew their food in the process of chewing the [[cud]], like most ruminants. While feeding, cows swallow their food without chewing; it goes into the rumen for storage. Later, the food is regurgitated to the mouth, a mouthful at a time, where the cud is chewed by the molars, grinding down the coarse vegetation to small particles. The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by the micro-organisms in the cow's stomach.<ref name="Orr 2023"/>

=== Reproduction ===

[[File:Cow giving birth, in Laos (step by step).jpg|thumb|alt=Nine sequential photos showing the calf being born|A cow giving birth]]

The [[gestation period]] for a cow is about nine months long. The [[secondary sex ratio|ratio of male to female offspring at birth]] is approximately 52:48.<ref name="Roche Lee Berry 2006 pp. 2119–2125">{{cite journal |last1=Roche |first1=J.R. |last2=Lee |first2=J.M. |last3=Berry |first3=D.P. |year=2006 |title=Pre-Conception Energy Balance and Secondary Sex Ratio—Partial Support for the Trivers-Willard Hypothesis in Dairy Cows |journal=[[Journal of Dairy Science]] |publisher=[[American Dairy Science Association]] |volume=89 |issue=6 |pages=2119–2125 |doi=10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(06)72282-2 |pmid=16702278 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A cow's [[udder]] has two pairs of [[mammary gland]]s or teats.<ref name="Frandson 2013">{{cite book |last1=Frandson |first1=Rowen D. |last2=Wilke |first2=W. Lee |last3=Fails |first3=Anna Dee |title=Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals |date= 2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-68601-0 |pages=449–451}}</ref> Farms often use [[artificial insemination]], the artificial deposition of [[semen]] in the [[Female Reproductive System|female's genital tract]]; this allows farmers to choose from a wide range of bulls to breed their cattle. [[Estrus]] too may be artificially induced to facilitate the process.<ref name="Hopper2014">{{cite book |last=Hopper |first=Richard M. |chapter=32. Artificial Insemination; 33. Pharmacological Intervention of Estrous Cycles |title=Bovine Reproduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxZTBAAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |isbn=978-1-118-47085-5}}</ref> [[Copulation (zoology)|Copulation]] lasts several seconds and consists of a single [[pelvic thrust]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Youngquist |first1=Robert S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7qogKGcOENAC&dq=copulation&pg=PA940 |title=Current Therapy in Large Animal Theriogenology |last2=Threlfall |first2=Walter R. |date=2006-10-10 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-1-4377-1340-4 |page=940 }}</ref>

Cows seek secluded areas for calving.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=S.A. |last2=Broom |first2=D.M. |year=1982 |title=Behavioural interactions of dairy cows with their newborn calves and the effects of parity |journal=[[Animal Behaviour (journal)|Animal Behaviour]] |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=525–535 |doi=10.1016/s0003-3472(82)80065-1 |s2cid=53145854 }}</ref> Semi-wild [[Highland cattle]] heifers first give birth at 2 or 3 years of age, and the timing of birth is synchronized with increases in natural food quality. Average calving interval is 391&nbsp;days, and calving mortality within the first year of life is 5%.<ref name="Reinhardt1986">{{cite journal |last1=Reinhardt |first1=C. |last2=Reinhardt |first2=A. |last3=Reinhardt |first3=V. |year=1986 |title=Social behaviour and reproductive performance in semi-wild Scottish Highland cattle |journal=[[Applied Animal Behaviour Science]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=125–136 |doi=10.1016/0168-1591(86)90058-4}}</ref> Beef calves suckle an average of 5 times per day, spending some 46 minutes suckling. There is a diurnal rhythm in suckling, peaking at roughly 6am, 11:30am, and 7pm.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Odde |first1=K. G. |last2=Kiracofe |first2=G.H. |last3=Schalles |first3=R.R. |year=1985 |title=Suckling behavior in range beef calves |journal=Journal of Animal Science |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=307–309 |doi=10.2527/jas1985.612307x |pmid=4044428 }}</ref> Under natural conditions, calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months. Heifer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in the first few months of life.<ref name="Johnsen2015">{{cite journal |last1=Johnsen |first1=J.F. |last2=Ellingsen |first2=K. |last3=Grøndahl |first3=A.M. |last4=Bøe |first4=K.E. |last5=Lidfors |first5=L. |last6=Mejdell |first6=C.M. |year=2015 |title=The effect of physical contact between dairy cows and calves during separation on their post-separation behavioural |journal=[[Applied Animal Behaviour Science]] |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274013035 |doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2015.03.002 |volume=166 |pages=11–19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707160417/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Julie_Johnsen/publication/274013035_The_effect_of_physical_contact_between_dairy_cows_and_calves_during_separation_on_their_post-separation_behavioural_response/links/551541630cf2d70ee26fee97.pdf |archive-date=7 July 2017 }}</ref>

=== Cognition ===

[[File:Lecorps 2018 calf sociability.jpg|thumb|Individual cattle differ in personality traits such as fearfulness and sociability.<ref name="Lecorps2018"/>]]

Cattle have a variety of cognitive abilities. They can memorize the locations of multiple food sources,<ref name="Bailey1989">{{cite journal |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |volume=23 |issue=4 |year=1989 |pages=331–340 |title=Characteristics of spatial memory in cattle |last1=Bailey |first1=D.W. |last2=Rittenhouse |first2=L.R. |last3=Hart |first3=R.H. |last4=Richards |first4=R.W |doi=10.1016/0168-1591(89)90101-9 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258397 }}</ref> and can retain memories for at least 48 days.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ksiksi |first1=T. |last2=Laca |first2=E.A. |year=2002 |title=Cattle do remember locations of preferred food over extended periods |journal= Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=900–904 |doi=10.5713/ajas.2002.900|doi-access=free }}</ref> Young cattle learn more quickly than adults,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kovalčik |first1=K. |last2=Kovalčik |first2=M. |year=1986 |title=Learning ability and memory testing in cattle of different ages |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=27–29 |doi=10.1016/0168-1591(86)90019-5}}</ref> and calves are capable of discrimination learning,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schaeffer |first1=R.G. |last2=Sikes |first2=J.D. |title=Discrimination learning in dairy calves |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |year=1971 |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=893–896 |doi=10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(71)85937-4 |pmid=5141440 |doi-access=free }}</ref> distinguishing familiar and unfamiliar animals,<ref name="Coulon2011"/> and between humans, using faces and other cues.<ref name="Passille1996">{{cite journal |last1=de Passille |first1=A.M. |last2=Rushen |first2=J. |last3=Ladewig |first3=J. |last4=Petherick |first4=C. |title=Dairy calves' discrimination of people based on previous handling |year=1996 |volume=74 |issue=5 |pages=969–974 |journal=Journal of Animal Science|doi=10.2527/1996.745969x |pmid=8726728 }}</ref> Calves prefer their own mother's vocalizations to those of an unfamiliar cow.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barfield |first1=C.H. |last2=Tang-Martinez |first2=Z. |last3=Trainer |first3=J.M. |year=1994 |title=Domestic calves (Bos taurus) recognize their own mothers by auditory cues |journal=[[Ethology (journal)|Ethology]] |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=257–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1994.tb01045.x |bibcode=1994Ethol..97..257B }}</ref> Vocalizations provide information on the age, sex, dominance status and reproductive status of the caller, and may indicate [[Estrous cycle|estrus]] in cows and competitive display in bulls.<ref name="Watts2000">{{cite journal |last1=Watts |first1=J.M. |last2=Stookey |first2=J.M. |year=2000 |title=Vocal behaviour in cattle: the animal's commentary on its biological processes and welfare |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=15–33 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00108-2 |pmid=10719186}}</ref> Cows can [[Categorization|categorize]] images as familiar and unfamiliar individuals.<ref name="Coulon2011">{{cite journal |last1=Coulon |first1=M. |last2=Baudoin |first2=C. |last3=Heyman |first3=Y. |last4=Deputte |first4=B.L. |year=2011 |title=Cattle discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics by using only head visual cues |journal=[[Animal Cognition]] |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=279–290 |doi=10.1007/s10071-010-0361-6 |pmid=21132446 |s2cid=39755371 }}</ref> [[Cloning|Cloned]] calves from the same donor form subgroups, suggesting that kin discrimination may be a basis of grouping behaviour.<ref name="Coulon2010x">{{cite journal |last1=Coulon |first1=M. |last2=Baudoin |first2=C. |last3=Abdi |first3=H. |last4=Heyman |first4=Y. |last5=Deputte |first5=B.L. |year=2010 |title=Social behavior and kin discrimination in a mixed group of cloned and non cloned heifers (Bos taurus) |journal=[[Theriogenology]] |volume=74 |issue=9 |pages=1596–1603 |doi=10.1016/j.theriogenology.2010.06.031|pmid=20708240 }}</ref> Cattle use [[Lateralization of brain function|visual/brain lateralisation]] when scanning novel and familiar stimuli.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Phillips |first1=C.J.C. |last2=Oevermans |first2=H. |last3=Syrett |first3=K.L. |last4=Jespersen |first4=A.Y. |last5=Pearce |first5=G.P. |year=2015 |title=Lateralization of behavior in dairy cows in response to conspecifics and novel persons |journal=[[Journal of Dairy Science]] |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=2389–2400 |doi=10.3168/jds.2014-8648|pmid=25648820 |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/247470 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They prefer to view novel stimuli with the left eye (using the right brain hemisphere), but the right eye for familiar stimuli.<ref name="Robins">{{cite journal |last1=Robins |first1=A. |last2=Phillips |first2=C. |year=2010 |title=Lateralised visual processing in domestic cattle herds responding to novel and familiar stimuli |journal=[[Laterality (journal)|Laterality]] |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=514–534 |doi=10.1080/13576500903049324 |pmid=19629847 |s2cid=13283847 }}</ref> Individual cattle have also been observed to display different personality traits, such as fearfulness and sociability.<ref name="Lecorps2018">{{cite journal |last1=Lecorps |first1=Benjamin |last2=Weary |first2=Daniel M. |last3=von Keyserlingk |first3=Marina A. G. |date=23 January 2018 |title=Pessimism and fearfulness in dairy calves |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=1421 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-17214-3 |pmid=29362460 |pmc=5780456 |bibcode=2018NatSR...8.1421L }}</ref>

=== Senses ===

Vision is the dominant sense; cattle obtain almost half of their information visually.<ref name="Adamczyk">{{cite journal |author1=Adamczyk, K. |author2=Górecka-Bruzda, A. |author3=Nowicki, J. |author4=Gumułka, M. |author5=Molik, E. |author6=Schwarz, T. |author7=Klocek, C. |year=2015 |title=Perception of environment in farm animals – A review |journal=Annals of Animal Science |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=565–589 |doi=10.1515/aoas-2015-0031 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Being prey animals, cattle evolved to look out for predators almost all around, with eyes that are on the sides of their head rather than the front. This gives them a field of view of 330°, but limits [[binocular vision]] (and therefore [[stereopsis]]) to some 30° to 50°, compared to 140° in humans.<ref name="Coulon2011"/> They are [[Dichromacy|dichromatic]], like most mammals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=G.H. |last2=Deegan |first2=J.F. |last3=Neitz |first3=J. |date=March 1998 |title=Photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision in cows, goats and sheep |journal=[[Visual Neuroscience (journal)|Visual Neuroscience]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=581–584 |doi=10.1017/s0952523898153154 |pmid=9685209 |s2cid=3719972}}</ref> Cattle avoid bitter-tasting foods, selecting sweet foods for energy. Their sensitivity to sour-tasting foods helps them to maintain optimal ruminal [[pH]].<ref name="Adamczyk"/> They seek out salty foods by taste and smell to maintain their [[electrolyte balance]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=F.R. |last2=Sly |first2=J. |year=1983 |title=The olfactory detection of sodium and lithium salts by sodium deficient cattle. |journal=[[Physiology & Behavior]] |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=307–312 |doi=10.1016/0031-9384(83)90193-2 |pmid=6634998 |s2cid=34619742}}</ref> Their hearing is better than that of horses,<ref name="Heffner">{{cite journal |last1=Heffner |first1=R.S. |last2=Heffner |first2=H.E. |year=1983 |title=Hearing in large mammals: Horses (Equus caballus) and cattle (Bos taurus) |journal=[[Behavioral Neuroscience (journal)|Behavioral Neuroscience]] |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=299–309 |doi=10.1037/0735-7044.97.2.299}}</ref> but worse at localising sounds than goats, and much worse than dogs or humans.<ref name="Heffner1992">{{cite journal |last1=Heffner |first1=R.S. |last2=Heffner |first2=H.E. |year=1992 |title=Hearing in large mammals: sound-localization acuity in cattle (Bos taurus) and goats (Capra hircus) |journal=[[Journal of Comparative Psychology]] |volume=106 |issue=2 |pages=107–113 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.106.2.107 |pmid=1600717}}</ref> They can distinguish between live and recorded human speech.<ref name="Lange2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Lange |first1=Annika |last2=Bauer |first2=Lisa |last3=Futschik |first3=Andreas |last4=Waiblinger |first4=Susanne |last5=Lürzel |first5=Stephanie |date=15 October 2020 |title=Talking to Cows: Reactions to Different Auditory Stimuli During Gentle Human-Animal Interactions |journal=[[Frontiers in Psychology]] |volume=11 |article-number=579346 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579346 |doi-access=free |pmid=33178082 |pmc=7593841 }}</ref> Olfaction probably plays a large role in their social life, indicating social and reproductive status.<ref name="Adamczyk"/><ref name="Keeling">{{cite book |last1=Bouissou |first1=M.F. |title=Social Behavior in Farm Animals |last2=Boissy |first2=A. |last3=Le Niendre |first3=P. |last4=Vessier |first4=I. |publisher=CABI Publishing |year=2001 |editor-last1=Keeling |editor-first1=L. |pages=113–133 |chapter=The Social Behaviour of Cattle 5. |editor-last2=Gonyou |editor-first2=H.}}</ref> Cattle can tell when other animals are stressed by smelling the alarm chemicals in their urine.<ref name="Boissy1998">{{cite journal |last1=Boissy |first1=A. |last2=Terlouw |first2=C. |last3=Le Neindre |first3=P. |year=1998 |title=Presence of cues from stressed conspecifics increases reactivity to aversive events in cattle: evidence for the existence of alarm substances in urine |journal=[[Physiology & Behavior|Physiology and Behavior]] |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=489–495 |doi=10.1016/s0031-9384(97)00466-6 |pmid=9523888 |s2cid=36904002}}</ref> Cattle can be trained to recognise conspecific individuals using olfaction only.<ref name="Keeling"/>