Editing User:Raven/ignore me (section)

== Impact of cattle husbandry ==

=== On public health ===

Cattle health is at once a veterinary issue (for animal welfare and productivity), a [[public health]] issue (to limit the spread of disease), and a [[food safety]] issue (to ensure meat and dairy products are safe to eat). These concerns are reflected in farming regulations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cattle Disease Guide |url=http://www.thecattlesite.com/diseaseinfo/ |access-date=4 December 2013 |archive-date=28 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128061325/http://www.thecattlesite.com/diseaseinfo/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> These rules can become political matters, as when it was proposed in the UK in 2011 that milk from [[tuberculosis]]-infected cattle should be allowed to enter the food chain.<ref>{{cite news |last=Harvey |first=Fiona |author-link=Fiona Harvey |date=17 May 2011 |title=Easing of farming regulations could allow milk from TB-infected cattle into food chain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/may/17/farming-regulation-tb-cattle-milk |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201102312/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/may/17/farming-regulation-tb-cattle-milk |archive-date=1 February 2014 |access-date=4 December 2013 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Cattle disease attracted attention in the 1980s and 1990s when [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (mad cow disease) [[United Kingdom BSE outbreak|broke out in the United Kingdom]]. BSE can cross into humans as the deadly [[variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease]]; 178 people in the UK had died from it by 2010.<ref name="Garske 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Garske |first1=Tini |last2=Ghani |first2=Azra C. |date=23 December 2010 |title=Uncertainty in the Tail of the Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Epidemic in the UK |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=5 |issue=12 |pages=e15626 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0015626 |doi-access=free |pmid=21203419 |pmc=3009744 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...515626G }}</ref>

=== On the environment ===

{{Main|Environmental impact of cattle production}}
[[File:World_Emissions_Intensity_Of_Agricultural_Commodities_(2021).svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Beef has the highest greenhouse gas impact of any agricultural commodity, followed by [[mutton]].]]

The [[gut flora]] of cattle [[methanogenesis|produce methane]], a powerful<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Methane vs Carbon Dioxide: A Greenhouse Gas Showdown |url=https://www.onegreenplanet.org/animalsandnature/methane-vs-carbon-dioxide-a-greenhouse-gas-showdown/ |access-date=29 January 2022 |work=One Green Planet}}</ref> greenhouse gas, as a byproduct of [[enteric fermentation]], with each cow belching out 100kg a year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=tdus |date=2019-06-27 |title=Cows and Climate Change |url=https://www.ucdavis.edu/food/news/making-cattle-more-sustainable |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=UC Davis}}</ref> Additional methane is produced by anaerobic fermentation of [[manure lagoon|stored manure]].<ref>US EPA. 2012. Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gases emissions and sinks: 1990–2010. US Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-12-001. Section 6.2.</ref> The FAO estimates that in 2015 around 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions were due to cattle, but this is uncertain.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Livestock Don't Contribute 14.5% of Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions |url=https://thebreakthrough.org/issues/food-agriculture-environment/livestock-dont-contribute-14-5-of-global-greenhouse-gas-emissions |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=The Breakthrough Institute}}</ref> Reducing [[Methane emissions from livestock|methane emissions]] quickly helps [[Climate change mitigation|limit climate change]].<ref name=":3"/>

[[Concentrated animal feeding operations]] in particular produce substantial amounts of wastewater and manure,<ref name="Bradford Segal Zheng Wang 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Bradford |first1=Scott A. |last2=Segal |first2=Eran |last3=Zheng |first3=Wei |last4=Wang |first4=Qiquan |last5=Hutchins |first5=Stephen R. |date=2008 |title=Reuse of Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation Wastewater on Agricultural Lands |journal=Journal of Environmental Quality |volume=37 |issue=S5 |pages=S97–S115 |doi=10.2134/jeq2007.0393 |pmid=18765783|bibcode=((2008JEnvQ..37..-97B))}}</ref><ref name=Koelsch>{{cite web |url=http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/waste_mgt/natlcenter/sanantonio/balvanz.pdf |title=Applying Alternative Technologies to CAFOs: A Case Study |first1=Richard |last1=Koelsch |first2=Carol |last2=Balvanz |first3=John |last3=George |first4=Dan |last4=Meyer |first5=John |last5=Nienaber |first6=Gene |last6=Tinker |access-date=16 January 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017230339/http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/waste_mgt/natlcenter/sanantonio/balvanz.pdf |archive-date=17 October 2013 }}</ref> which can cause environmental harms such as soil erosion, human and animal exposure to toxic chemicals, development of [[antibiotic resistant bacteria]] and an increase in ''[[E. coli]]'' contamination.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ikerd |first=John |title=The Economics of CAFOs & Sustainable Alternatives |url=http://web.missouri.edu/~ikerdj/papers/Fairfield%20IA%20-%20Economics%20of%20CAFOs.htm |publisher=Web.missouri.edu |access-date=15 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810081852/http://web.missouri.edu/~ikerdj/papers/Fairfield%20IA%20-%20Economics%20of%20CAFOs.htm |archive-date=10 August 2014 }}</ref><ref name="UCS">{{cite web |last=Gurian-Sherman |first=Doug |title=CAFOs Uncovered: The Untold Costs of Confined Animal Feeding Operations |url=http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/food_and_agriculture/cafos-uncovered.pdf |access-date=15 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126213408/http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/food_and_agriculture/cafos-uncovered.pdf |archive-date=26 January 2013 }}</ref>

In many world regions, [[overgrazing]] by cattle has reduced [[biodiversity]] of the grazed plants and of animals at different [[trophic level]]s in the [[ecosystem]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Filazzola |first=Alessandro |display-authors=etal |title=The effects of livestock grazing on biodiversity are multi-trophic: a meta-analysis |journal=[[Ecology Letters]] |volume=23 |issue=8 |year=2020 |pages=1298–1309 |doi=10.1111/ele.13527|pmid=32369874 |bibcode=2020EcolL..23.1298F }}</ref> A well documented consequence of overgrazing is [[woody plant encroachment]] in rangelands, which significantly reduces the [[carrying capacity]] of the land over time.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Archer |first1=Steven R. |chapter=Woody Plant Encroachment: Causes and Consequences |date=2017 |title=Rangeland Systems |pages=25–84 |editor-last=Briske |editor-first=David D. |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-46709-2_2 |isbn=978-3-319-46707-8 |last2=Andersen |first2=Erik M. |last3=Predick |first3=Katharine I. |last4=Schwinning |first4=Susanne |last5=Steidl |first5=Robert J. |last6=Woods |first6=Steven R.|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== On animal welfare ===

{{Further|Cruelty to animals#Welfare concerns of farm animals}}

[[File:Calves.JPG|thumb|left|Confining calves for [[veal]] production in individual crates has attracted welfare concerns.]]

Cattle husbandry practices including [[livestock branding|branding]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schwartzkopf-Genswein |first1=K. S. |last2=Stookey |first2=J. M. |last3=Welford |first3=R. |date=1 August 1997 |title=Behavior of cattle during hot-iron and freeze branding and the effects on subsequent handling ease |journal=Journal of Animal Science |volume=75 |issue=8 |pages=2064–2072 |pmid=9263052 |doi=10.2527/1997.7582064x}}</ref> [[castration]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LpIbwuYIyEcC&q=cattle+castration+painful&pg=PT70 |title=Pain Management, An Issue of Veterinary Clinics: Food Animal Practice |last=Coetzee |first=Hans |date=19 May 2013 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] Health Sciences |isbn=978-1-4557-7376-3 |page=PT70}}</ref> [[Livestock dehorning|dehorning]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/LiteratureReviews/Pages/Welfare-Implications-of-Dehorning-and-Disbudding-Cattle.aspx |title=Welfare Implications of Dehorning and Disbudding Cattle |website=www.avma.org |access-date=5 April 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905191320/https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/LiteratureReviews/Pages/Welfare-Implications-of-Dehorning-and-Disbudding-Cattle.aspx |archive-date=5 September 2015}}</ref> [[ear tag]]ging,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/26/us/ear-tagging-proposal-may-mean-fewer-branded-cattle.html |title=Ear-Tagging Proposal May Mean Fewer Branded Cattle |last=Goode |first=Erica |date=25 January 2012 |work=The New York Times |access-date=5 April 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406111331/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/26/us/ear-tagging-proposal-may-mean-fewer-branded-cattle.html |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref> [[Nose ring (animal)|nose ringing]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzc7CgAAQBAJ&q=cattle+nose+ring+pain&pg=PA111 |title=Improving Animal Welfare, 2 Edition: A Practical Approach |last=Grandin |first=Temple |date=21 July 2015 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-78064-467-7 |page=111}}</ref> restraint,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.grandin.com/references/abdlps.html |title=Restraint of Livestock |website=www.grandin.com |access-date=5 April 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213024104/http://www.grandin.com/references/abdlps.html |archive-date=13 December 2017}}</ref> [[Docking (animal)|tail docking]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xPt1BgAAQBAJ&q=cattle+tail+docking+pain&pg=PA21 |title=Cow Talk: Understanding Dairy Cow Behaviour to Improve Their Welfare on Asian Farms |last1=Doyle |first1=Rebecca |last2=Moran |first2=John |date=3 February 2015 |publisher=Csiro Publishing |isbn=978-1-4863-0162-1 |pages=20–21}}</ref> the use of [[veal]] crates,<ref name="McKenna">{{cite web |title=The case against the veal crate: An examination of the scientific evidence that led to the banning of the veal crate system in the EU and of the alternative group housed systems that are better for calves, farmers and consumers |author=McKenna, C. |publisher=[[Compassion in World Farming]] |year=2001 |access-date=19 April 2016 |url=https://www.ciwf.org.uk/media/3818635/case-against-the-veal-crate.pdf}}</ref> and [[cattle prod]]s<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://grandin.com/behaviour/principles/prods.html |title=Using Prods and Persuaders Properly to Handle Cattle, Pigs, and Sheep |website=grandin.com |access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref> have raised welfare concerns.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://awionline.org/content/cattle |title=Cattle |website=awionline.org |access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref>

Stocking density is the number of animals within a specified area. High stocking density can affect cattle health, welfare, productivity,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Grant, R. |date=2011 |title=Taking advantage of natural behavior improves dairy cow performance |url=http://articles.extension.org/pages/11129/taking-advantage-of-natural-behavior-improves-dairy-cow-performance |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202101756/http://articles.extension.org/pages/11129/taking-advantage-of-natural-behavior-improves-dairy-cow-performance |archive-date=2 December 2016}}</ref> and feeding behaviour.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Huzzey |first1=J. |last2=Keyserlingk |first2=M. |last3=Overton |first3=T. |year=2012 |title=The behaviour and physiological consequences of overstocking dairy cattle |url=https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20143159639 |journal=American Association of Bovine Practitioners |pages=92–97 |doi=10.21423/aabppro20123879 |s2cid=203405605|url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}</ref> Densely-stocked cattle feed more rapidly and lie down sooner, increasing the risk of teat infection, mastitis, and [[embryo loss]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Tyler |first1=J.W |last2=Fox |first2=L.K. |last3=Parish |first3=S.M. |last4=Swain |first4=J. |last5=Johnson |first5=D.J. |last6=Grassechi |first6=H.A. |year=1997 |title=Effect of feed availability on post-milking standing time in dairy cows |journal=Journal of Dairy Research |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=617–620 |doi=10.1017/s0022029997002501 |pmid=9403771 |s2cid=41754001}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Schefers |first1=J.M. |last2=Weigel |first2=K.A. |last3=Rawson |first3=C.L. |last4=Zwald |first4=N.R. |last5=Cook |first5=N.B. |year=2010 |title=Management practices associated with conception rate and service rate of lactating Holstein cows in large, commercial dairy herds |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |volume=93 |issue=4 |pages=1459–1467 |doi=10.3168/jds.2009-2015 |pmid=20338423 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The stress and negative health impacts induced by high stocking density such as in [[concentrated animal feeding operations]] or [[feedlots]], auctions, and transport may be detrimental to cattle welfare.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grandin |first=Temple |date=1 December 2016 |title=Evaluation of the welfare of cattle housed in outdoor feedlot pens |journal=Veterinary and Animal Science |volume=1–2 |pages=23–28 |doi=10.1016/j.vas.2016.11.001 |pmid=32734021 |pmc=7386639 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

To produce milk, most [[cow-calf separation|calves are separated from their mothers soon after birth]] and fed milk replacement to retain the cows' milk for human consumption.<ref name="milk">{{cite web |url=https://www.vegsoc.org/info-hub/why-go-veggie/animals/cattle/ |title=Cattle |author=Vegetarian Society |author-link=Vegetarian Society |access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref>[[Dairy cattle]] are frequently [[artificially inseminated]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Jacobs |first=Andrew |date=2020-12-29 |title=Is Dairy Farming Cruel to Cows? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/29/science/dairy-farming-cows-milk.html |access-date=2025-03-08 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Animal welfare advocates are [[Dairy cattle#Animal welfare|critical of this practice]], stating that this breaks the natural bond between the mother and her calf.<ref name="milk"/> The [[Veal#Animal welfare|welfare of veal calves]] is also a concern.<ref name="EFSA 2023 Veal">{{cite web |title=EFSA: house calves in small groups to improve welfare |url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/news/efsa-house-calves-small-groups-improve-welfare |publisher=European Food Safety Authority |access-date=14 February 2024 |date=29 March 2023}}</ref>

Two sports involving cattle are thought to be cruel by animal welfare groups: [[Animal treatment in rodeo|rodeos]] and [[bullfighting]]. Such groups oppose rodeo activities including [[bull riding]], [[calf roping]] and [[steer roping]], stating that rodeos are unnecessary and cause stress, injury, and death to the animals.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna25725170 |title=Animal rights group targets popular rodeo |last=Smith |first=Michael |agency=AP |date=17 July 2008 |website=msnbc.com |access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref> In Spain, the [[Running of the bulls#Opposition|Running of the bulls faces opposition]] due to the stress and injuries incurred by the bulls during the event.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lamalla.net/actualitat_cultural/festes_populars/article?id=71973 |archive-date=11 September 2012 |title=Passion for bulls in the street |first=Andres |last=Antebi |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120911032132/http://www.lamalla.net/actualitat_cultural/festes_populars/article?id=71973 |access-date=23 October 2020 |language=ca}}</ref>