Editing User:Raven/ignore me (section)

== Behavior ==

=== Dominance hierarchy ===

[[File:Oman_bullfighting_(2).jpg|thumb|Spectators in [[Oman]] watch a fight between bulls.]]

Cattle live in a [[dominance hierarchy]]. This is maintained in several ways. Cattle often engage in mock fights where they test each other's strength in a non-aggressive way. [[Licking]] is primarily performed by subordinates and received by dominant animals. Mounting is a playful behavior shown by calves of both sexes and by bulls and sometimes by cows in estrus,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://extension.psu.edu/animals/dairy/health/reproduction/insemination/ec402/signs-of-heat |title=Signs of Heat (Heat Detection and Timing of Insemination for Cattle) |website=Heat Detection and Timing of Insemination for Cattle (Penn State Extension) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105161839/http://extension.psu.edu/animals/dairy/health/reproduction/insemination/ec402/signs-of-heat |archive-date=5 November 2016 }}</ref> however, this is not a dominance related behavior as has been found in other species.<ref name="Reinhardt1986"/> Dominance-associated aggressiveness does not correlate with rank position, but is closely related to rank distance between individuals.<ref name="Reinhardt1986" /> The horns of cattle are [[Honest signal|used]] in mate selection. Horned cattle attempt to keep greater distances between themselves and have fewer physical interactions than hornless cattle, resulting in more stable social relationships.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knierim |first1=U. |last2=Irrgang |first2=N. |last3=Roth |first3=B.A. |year=2015 |title=To be or not to be horned–consequences in cattle |journal=Livestock Science |doi=10.1016/j.livsci.2015.05.014 |volume=179 |pages=29–37}}</ref> In calves, agonistic behavior becomes less frequent as space allowance increases, but not as group size changes, whereas in adults, the number of agonistic encounters increases with group size.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kondo |first1=S. |last2=Sekine |first2=J. |last3=Okubo |first3=M. |last4=Asahida |first4=Y. |year=1989 |title=The effect of group size and space allowance on the agonistic and spacing behavior of cattle. |journal=[[Applied Animal Behaviour Science]] |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=127–135 |doi=10.1016/0168-1591(89)90040-3}}</ref>

Dominance relationships in semi-wild highland cattle are very firm, with few overt aggressive conflicts: most disputes are settled by [[agonistic behavior|agonistic]] (non-aggressive, competitive) behaviors with no physical contact between opponents, reducing the risk of injury. Dominance status depends on age and sex, with older animals usually dominant to young ones and males dominant to females. Young bulls gain superior dominance status over adult cows when they reach about 2 years of age.<ref name="Reinhardt1986"/>

=== Grazing behavior ===
[[File:Stier_Charolais_Linnenbach.JPG|thumb|A [[Charolais cattle|Charolais]] bull grazing]]
[[File:Kor och kalvar på Öja mosse i Ystad 7 maj 2025.webm|thumb|Cows and calves grazing in a pasture in [[Ystad]] 2025.]]
Cattle eat mixed diets, but prefer to eat approximately 70% clover and 30% grass. This preference has a diurnal pattern, with a stronger preference for clover in the morning, and the proportion of grass increasing towards the evening.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rutter |first=S.M. |year=2006 |title=Diet preference for grass and legumes in free-ranging domestic sheep and cattle: current theory and future application. |journal=[[Applied Animal Behaviour Science]] |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=17–35 |doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2005.11.016}}</ref> When grazing, cattle vary several aspects of their bite, i.e. tongue and jaw movements, depending on characteristics of the plant they are eating. Bite area decreases with the density of the plants but increases with their height. Bite area is determined by the sweep of the tongue; in one study observing {{convert|750|kg|adj=on}} steers, bite area reached a maximum of approximately {{convert|170|cm2|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}. Bite depth increases with the height of the plants. By adjusting their behavior, cattle obtain heavier bites in swards that are tall and sparse compared with short, dense swards of equal mass/area.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Laca |first1=E.A. |last2=Ungar |first2=E.D. |last3=Seligman |first3=N. |last4=Demment |first4=M.W. |year=1992 |title=Effects of sward height and bulk density on bite dimensions of cattle grazing homogeneous swards |journal=Grass and Forage Science |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=91–102 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2494.1992.tb02251.x |bibcode=1992GForS..47...91L }}</ref> Cattle adjust other aspects of their grazing behavior in relation to the available food; foraging velocity decreases and intake rate increases in areas of abundant palatable forage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bailey |first1=D.W. |last2=Gross |first2=J.E. |last3=Laca |first3=E.A. |last4=Rittenhouse |first4=L.R. |last5=Coughenour |first5=M.B. |last6=Swift |first6=D.M. |last7=Sims |first7=P.L. |year=1996 |title=Mechanisms that result in large herbivore grazing distribution patterns |journal=Journal of Range Management |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=386–400 |doi=10.2307/4002919|jstor=4002919 |hdl=10150/644282 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Cattle avoid grazing areas contaminated by the faeces of other cattle more strongly than they avoid areas contaminated by sheep,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Forbes |first1=T.D.A. |last2=Hodgson |first2=J. |year=1985 |title=The reaction of grazing sheep and cattle to the presence of dung from the same or the other species |journal=Grass and Forage Science |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=177–182 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2494.1985.tb01735.x |bibcode=1985GForS..40..177F }}</ref> but they do not avoid pasture contaminated by rabbits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Daniels |first1=M.J. |last2=Ball |first2=N. |last3=Hutchings |first3=M.R. |last4=Greig |first4=A. |year=2001 |title=The grazing response of cattle to pasture contaminated with rabbit faeces and the implications for the transmission of paratuberculosis |journal=[[The Veterinary Journal]] |volume=161 |issue=3 |pages=306–313 |doi=10.1053/tvjl.2000.0550 |pmid=11352488 }}</ref>

=== Temperament and emotions ===

[[File:CowPosture 20150612.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Ear postures of cows indicate emotional state and overall welfare.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Proctor |first1=Helen S. |last2=Carder |first2=Gemma |date=9 October 2014 |title=Can ear postures reliably measure the positive emotional state of cows? |url=http://www.appliedanimalbehaviour.com/article/S0168-1591(14)00249-4/abstract |url-status=dead |journal=[[Applied Animal Behaviour Science]] |volume=161 |pages=20–27 |doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2014.09.015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003112753/http://www.appliedanimalbehaviour.com/article/S0168-1591(14)00249-4/abstract |archive-date=3 October 2020 |access-date=27 October 2016|url-access=subscription }}</ref>]]

In cattle, temperament or behavioral disposition can affect productivity, overall health, and reproduction.<ref name="Brand 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Brand |first1=B. |author2=Hadlich, F. |author3=Brandt, B. |author4=Schauer, N. |author5=Graunke, K.L. |author6=Langbein, J. |author7=Schwerin, M. |year=2015 |title=Temperament type specific metabolite profiles of the prefrontal cortex and serum in cattle. |journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e0125044 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1025044B |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0125044 |pmc=4416037 |pmid=25927228 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Five underlying categories of temperament traits have been proposed: shyness–boldness, exploration–avoidance, activity, [[Aggression in cattle|aggressiveness]], and sociability.<ref name="Reale 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Réale |first1=D. |last2=Reader |first2=S.M. |last3=Sol |first3=D. |last4=McDougall |first4=P.T. |last5=Dingemanse |first5=N.J. |year=2007 |title=Integrating animal temperament within ecology and evolution |journal=[[Biological Reviews]] |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=291–318 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185x.2007.00010.x |pmid=17437562 |s2cid=44753594 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1874/25732}}</ref> There are many indicators of emotion in cattle. Holstein–Friesian heifers that had made clear improvements in a learning experiment had higher heart rates, indicating an emotional reaction to their own learning.<ref name="Hagen 2004">{{cite journal |last1=Hagen |first1=K. |last2=Broom |first2=D. |year=2004 |title=Emotional reactions to learning in cattle |url=http://www.appliedanimalbehaviour.com/article/S0168-1591%2803%2900294-6/abstract |journal=[[Applied Animal Behaviour Science]] |volume=85 |issue=3–4 |pages=203–213 |doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2003.11.007|url-access=subscription }}</ref> After separation from their mothers, Holstein calves react, indicating low mood.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Daros |first1=R.R. |last2=Costa |first2=J.H. |last3=von Keyserlingk |first3=M.A. |last4=Hötzel |first4=M.J. |last5=Weary |first5=D.M. |year=2014 |title=Separation from the dam causes negative judgement bias in dairy calves |journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=e98429 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...998429D |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0098429 |pmc=4029834 |pmid=24848635 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Similarly, after hot-iron [[dehorning]], calves react to the post-operative pain.<ref name="Neave">{{cite journal |last1=Neave |first1=H.W. |last2=Daros |first2=R.R. |last3=Costa |first3=J.H.C. |last4=von Keyserlingk |first4=M.A.G. |last5=Weary |first5=D.M. |year=2013 |title=Pain and pessimism: Dairy calves exhibit negative judgement bias following hot-iron disbudding |journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=e80556 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...880556N |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0080556 |pmc=3851165 |pmid=24324609 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The position of the ears has been used as an indicator of emotional state.<ref name="Coulon2011" /> Cattle can tell when other cattle are stressed by the chemicals in their urine.<ref name="Boissy1998" /> Cattle are [[Social animal|gregarious]], and even short-term isolation causes psychological [[Stress (biology)|stress]]. When heifers are isolated, vocalizations, [[heart rate]] and plasma [[cortisol]] all increase. When visual contact is re-instated, vocalizations rapidly decline; heart rate decreases more rapidly if the returning cattle are familiar to the previously isolated individual.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boissy |first1=A. |last2=Le Neindre |first2=P. |year=1997 |title=Behavioral, cardiac and cortisol responses to brief peer separation and reunion in cattle |journal=[[Physiology & Behavior]] |volume=61 |issue=5 |pages=693–699 |doi=10.1016/s0031-9384(96)00521-5 |pmid=9145939 |s2cid=8507049}}</ref> Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in isolated cattle.<ref name="Piller Stookey Watts 1999">{{cite journal |last1=Piller |first1=Carol A.K. |last2=Stookey |first2=Joseph M |last3=Watts |first3=Jon M. |title=Effects of mirror-image exposure on heart rate and movement of isolated heifers |journal=[[Applied Animal Behaviour Science]] |volume=63 |issue=2 |date=1999 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00010-6 |pages=93–102}}</ref>

=== Sleep ===

{{further|Sleep in non-human animals}}

The average sleep time of a domestic cow is about 4 hours a day.<ref>"40 Winks?" Jennifer S. Holland, ''National Geographic'' Vol. 220, No. 1. July 2011.</ref> Cattle do have a [[stay apparatus]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Asprea |first1=Lori |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=74Hd_YLuHsUC&pg=PT109 |title=Anatomy and physiology for veterinary technicians and nurses a clinical approach. |last2=Sturtz |first2=Robin |date=2012 |publisher=[[Iowa State University]] Pre |isbn=978-1-118-40584-0 |location=Chichester |page=109}}</ref> but do not sleep standing up;<ref>{{cite web |title=Animal MythBusters |publisher=Manitoba Veterinary Medical Association |url=http://www.mvma.ca/resources/animal-owners/animal-mythbusters#cow+tipping |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415135131/http://www.mvma.ca/resources/animal-owners/animal-mythbusters#cow+tipping |archive-date=15 April 2016 |website=www.mvma.ca}}</ref> they lie down to sleep deeply.<ref name="collins">{{cite news |last=Collins |first=Nick |date=6 September 2013 |title=Cow tipping myth dispelled |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10289862/Cow-tipping-myth-dispelled.html |url-status=live |access-date=18 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426021919/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10289862/Cow-tipping-myth-dispelled.html |archive-date=26 April 2016}}</ref>

==== Incident 342347239487234 ====

{{bee}}

I think you might be bees.

===== Nuclear fallout =====

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''Lorem ipsum'' is typically a corrupted version of {{lang|la|[[De finibus bonorum et malorum]]}}, a 1st-century BC text by the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] statesman and philosopher [[Cicero]], with words altered, added, and removed to make it nonsensical and improper [[Latin]]. The first two words are the [[Clipping (morphology)|truncation]] of {{lang|la|dolorem ipsum}} ("pain itself").